1. Thomas R. McHale, "Early Technological Innovation in Sugar Cane Agriculture and Sugar Making Techniques in the Philippines (Abstract)," Proceedings of the Ninth Pacific Science Congress (Bangkok, 1963), 3:237; Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), p. 19; Thomas R. McHale and Mary C. McHale, eds., Early American-Philippine Trade: The Journal of Nathaniel Bowditch in Manila, 1796 , Monograph Series, no. 2 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1962), p. 31n; Cleve W. Hines, Cane Production and Sugar Manufacture in the Philippine Islands , Government of the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 33 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1919), p. 13; Philippine Commercial Agencies, comp., Economic Resources and Developments of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Philippine Commercial Agencies, 1920), p. 49; SN 6 (1925): 465-68; Carlos Quirino, History of the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Kalayaan, 1974), pp. 1-3. Linguistic evidence, including wide-spread use within the archipelago of the Malayo-Polynesian word tubo , or some variation thereof, for sugar cane supports this interpretation of the beginning and spread of sugar in the islands ( SN 7 [1926]: 615-17). Sugar cane figures appear in the origin myths of at least two Philippine ethnic groups: the Bagobos and the Visayans (Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. [London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-1950], 1:13; and Ma. Fe Hernaez Romero, Negros Occidental Between Two Foreign Powers (1888-1909) [Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974], p. 12). [BACK]

2. Ch'en Ching-Ho, The Chinese Community in the Sixteenth Century Philippines (Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1968), pp. 7-9; Wu Ching-Hong, A Study of References to the Philippines in Chinese Sources from Earliest Times to the Ming Dynasty (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1959), pp. 108-10; Fay-Cooper Cole, "The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao," Field Museum of Natural History: Publication 170, , Anthropological Series 12 (1913), p. 85; Francisco Ignacio Alzina, S.J., "Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas, parte mayor y mas importante de las Islas Filipina . . . año 1668," trans. Paul S. Lietz (ms. photocopy at the University of Chicago), bk. 1, pp. 391-99; Guido de Lavezaris and others, "Reply to Fray Martin de Rada,'' Manila, ca. June 1574, B&R, 3:270; letter from Andrés de Mirandaola to Felipe II, June 8, 1574, B&R, 3:56n. [BACK]

3. Charles E. Nowell, ed., Magellan's Voyage Around the World (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1962), p. 182; Juan Manuel de la Vega, "Expeditions to the Province of Tuy," Passi, July 3, 1609, B&R, 14:290; Guido de Lavezaris and others, "A Letter from the Royal Officials of the Filipinas Accompanied by a Memorandum of Necessary Things to Be Sent to the Colony," Cebu, May 28, 1565, B&R, 2:190; letter

from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II, Manila, July 17, 1574, B&R, 3:276; letter from Juan Pacheco Maldonado to Felipe II, Manila, ca. 1575, B&R, 3:299; Domingo de Salazar and others, "Relation of the Philippine Islands," Manila, June 25, 1588, B&R, 7:34; Domingo de Salazar, "The Chinese and the Parián at Manila," Manila, June 24, 1590, B&R, 7:221; Hernando Riquel and others, "News from the Western Islands," Mexico, January 15, 1574, B&R, 3:245; Andrew Van Hook, Sugar: Its Production, Technology, and Uses (New York: Ronald Press, 1949), pp. 126-36; and Ward Barrett, The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970), pp. 3-4. [BACK]

4. McHale, Early Technological Innovation , pp. 237-38; Alzina, "Historia de las islas," bk. 2, pp. 17-18; Juan de Medina, O.S.A., Historia de la orden de S. Agustín de estas Islas Filipinas , Manila, 1630, B&R, 23:213; Diego de Bobadilla, S.J., "Relation of the Filipinas Islands," Cádiz, 1640, B&R, 29:297; Anon., "Early Franciscan Missions," Manila, 1649, B&R, 35:320; Hernando de los Rios Coronel, "Memorial and Relation for His Majesty," Madrid, 1621, B&R, 19:285; Nicholas P. Cushner, Landed Estates in the Colonial Philippines , Monograph Series, no. 20 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1976), p. 33. [BACK]

5. PAR 21 (1928): 78-80; Juan Diez de la Calle, Memorial, y noticias sacras, y reales del imperio de las Indias Occidentales, al mvy catolico . . . rey de las Españas . . . d. Felipe IV (Madrid: n.p., 1646), p. 160v; Francisco Combes, S.J., Historia de Mindanao y Joló (Madrid: Imp. de la Viuda de Minuesa de los Ríos, 1897), p. 49; Philippine Commonwealth, Bureau of Plant Industry, The Manufacture of Basi Sugarcane Wine Is One of the Other Products than Sugar Which Can Be Obtained from Sugar Cane (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1935); "Ordinances of Good Government," B&R, 50:220. In northern Luzon, basi made from fermented cane juice is still widely consumed. [BACK]

6. Cushner, Landed Estates , pp. 43-44, 64; Dennis Morrow Roth, The Friar Estates in the Philippines (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977), p. 86. [BACK]

7. Commercial grades of sugar were exported from the Philippines from the late seventeenth century on, and Chinese boatmen regularly traveled to Pampanga at that time, likely picking up sugar for the foreign dealers in Manila (Juan Francisco de San Antonio, O.F.M., Chrónicas de las apostó1ica provincia de S. Gregorio de religiosos de n.s.p. San Francisco en las Islas Philipinas, China, Japón . . ., 3 vols. (Sampaloc: Juan del Sotillo, 1738-44), 1:77; María Lourdes Díaz-Trechuelo Spinola, "The Role of the Chinese in the Philippine Economy," in The Chinese in the Philippines, 1570-1770 , ed. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1966), pp. 187-93; Horacio de la Costa, S.J., Asia and the Philippines (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1967), pp. 115-16. [BACK]

8. Juan Maldonado de Puga, "The Order of St. John of God," Granada, 1762, B&R, 47:167, 167n; Díaz-Trechuelo, "Role of the Chinese," pp. 204-8. [BACK]

9. William Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1939); Leslie E. Bauzon, Deficit Government: Mexico and the Philippine Situado, 1606-1804 (Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1981). [BACK]

10. Serafin D. Quiason, English "Country Trade" with the Philip-pines, 1644-1765 (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1966); idem, "The English Country Trade with Manila Prior to 1708," Philippine Economic Journal 2 (1963): 201; Nicholas Norton Nicols, "Commerce of the Philippinas Islands and Advantages Which They Can Yield to His Majesty Carlos III," B&R, 47:257; Pierre Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Ibériques (XVI ^e , XVII ^e , XVIII ^e siècles): Introduction Méthodologique et Indices d'Activité , Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, VI ^e Section, Centre de Recherches Historique, Ports—Routes—Trafics XI (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1960); Ruurdje Laarhoven Casiño and Elizabeth Pino Wittermans, "From Blockade to Trade: Early Dutch Relations with Manila, 1600-1750," paper presented at the Ninth Conference of the International Association of Historians of Asia, Manila, November 22, 1983, pp. 16-27 [BACK]

11. Benito Legarda, Jr., "Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1955), p. 188. [BACK]

12. Maríta Lourdes Díaz-Trechuelo Spinola, La Real Compañía de Filipinas (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1965), p. 269; María Luisa Rodriguez Baena, La Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pals de Manila in el Siglo XVIII (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1966); Francisco Gutierrez Creps, Memoria sobre el cultivo, beneficio y comercio del azúcar (Manila: Celestino Miralles, 1878). [BACK]

13. Centenary of Wise and Company in the Philippines, 1826-1926 (n.p.: n.p., n.d.), p. 101; Legarda, "Foreign Trade," p. 229; Nicholas Tarling, "Some Aspects of British Trade in the Philippines in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of History (Manila) 11 (September-December 1963): 306-11; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation An Economic History of Britain, 1700-1914 (London: Methuen, 1959), pp. 377-81; A. H. P. Edwards to Secretary of State John Forsyth, December 31, 1835, U.S. Consular Reports, Manila, U.S. National Archives. [BACK]

14. McHale and McHale, Early American-Philippine Trade . [BACK]

15. McHale, "Early Technological Innovation," p. 238; SN 4 (1923): 545, 6 (1925): 469-70; [Henry Piddington], Remarks on the Philippine Islands and their Capital, Manila, 1819 to 1822: By an Englishman (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1828), pp. 57-60; McHale and McHale, Early American-Philippine Trade , pp. 43-45; Legarda, "Foreign Trade,"

pp. 183-84; Tomás de Comyn, Estado de las islas Filipinas en 1810: brevemente descrito (Madrid: Imp. de Repullés, 1820), pp. 10-11; Jean Mallat de Bassilan, Les Philippines: Histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie, 2 vols. (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846), 1:133; Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition: During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 , 5 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1856), 5:289; Robert MacMicking, Recollections of Manilla and the Philippines, During 1848, 1849, and 1850 (London: Richard Bentley, 1851), pp. 256-58; Centenary of Wise and Company , p. 88; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio y navegacion de las Islas Filipinas (Cádiz: Imp. de D. Domingo Féros, 1838), pp. 49-50; G. E. Nesom and Herbert S. Walker, Handbook on the Sugar Industry of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), pt. 1, p. 13. [BACK]

16. Field notes of Robert Fox on Balukbuk and Gubat sites, Porac, Pampanga, December 1959 to May 1960, Philippine National Museum Excavations; John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chaps. 2-3. [BACK]

17. On Macapagal's career, see Nicholas P. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1970), p. 107. [BACK]

18. Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memorias históricas y estadísticas de Filipinas y particularmente de la grande isla de Luzon (Manila: Imp. del Diario de Manila, 1850), chap. 5. [BACK]

19. Juan de Plasencia, O.S.F., "Customs of the Pampangas in Their Lawsuits," B&R, 16:321-29. [BACK]

20. Norman G. Owen, "The Principalia in Philippine History: Kabikolan, 1790-1878," Philippine Studies 22 (1974): 297-324. [BACK]

21. José Basco y Vargas, "A Decree by Basco in 1784," B&R, 52: 291-301. On the need to control manpower in early Southeast Asian history see, e.g., Anthony Reid, "The Structure of Cities in Southeast Asia, Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 9 (September 1980): 243-50. [BACK]

22. Nicholas P. Cushner and John A. Larkin, "Royal Land Grants in the Colonial Philippines (1571-1626): Implications for the Formation of a Social Elite," Philippine Studies 26 (1978): 102-11. [BACK]

23. Spaniards introduced the idea of private ownership of land into the Philippines; however, it was the native elite who institutionalized the system throughout the archipelago (Cushner, Landed Estates , pp. 1-3). [BACK]

24. Edgar Wickberg, "The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History," Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 (March 1964): 62-100. [BACK]

25. Yldefonso de Aragon, Descripción geográfica y typográfica de la ysla de Luzon ó Nuevo Castilla con las particulares de las diez y seis provincias ó partidos que comprehende (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel

Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1819), pt. 4:3-38; Francisco Villacorta, O.E.S.A., Administracion espiritual de las padres agustinos calzados de la provincia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus de las Islas Filipinas . . . (Valladolid: Imp. de H. Ro1dan, 1833), pp. 72-82; Illustración Filipina , February 1, 1860, pp. 32-34; February 15, 1860, pp. 43-45. [BACK]

26. Díaz-Trechuelo, La Real Compañía , p. 269; D í az Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio , p. 54; James A. LeRoy, The Americans in the Philippines , 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 1:10. [BACK]

27. Yldefonso de Aragon, Estados de la población de Filipinas correspondiente a el año de 1818 (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1820), table 2; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:197. [BACK]

28. Mariano A. Henson, Mariano A. Henson's Pictorial and Historical Album of the City of Angeles, Pampanga (Angeles: By the author, 1964); idem, A Brief History of the Town of Angeles in the Province of Pampanga, Philippines (San Fernando, Pampanga: Ing Katiwala Press, 1948), pp. 1-3; idem, The Descendants of the Founder of Angeles, Pampanga, Don Angel Pantaleon de Miranda and of Don Severino Henson (Angeles: By the author, 1966); idem, The Hensons of Pampanga (Angeles: By the author, 1948). [BACK]

29. Coleccion de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organízación de las antiguas posesiones españolas de ultramar , vol. 2, De las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Royal Academy of History, 1886), pp. 410-18. [BACK]

30. Miguel de Loarca, "Relation of the Filipinas Islands," B&R, 5:47; Alzina, "Historia de las islas," bk. 3, chap. 5; Robustiano Echaúz, Apuntes de la Isla de Negros (Manila:Chofré y Cia, 1894), pp. 7-8, 94-101; Dean C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and Their People (New York: Macmillan, 1899), pp. 265-69; Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri, A Voyage to the Philippines (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1963; original, 1699-1700), p. 55; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 13, 31; HDP, Hinigaran, p. 68; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:317-18; letter from Luther Parker to the Director of Education, Manila, January 13, 1913, BS, Visayas, 4:3-6; Timoteo S. Oración, "A Preliminary Report on Some Culture Aspects of the Bukidnons of Southeastern Negros Island, Philippines," Unitas 40 (1967): 156-81; idem, "The Magahats of Southern Negros, Philippines: Problems and Prospects," Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 2 (March-June, 1974): 21-29. [BACK]

31. HDP, Hinigaran, p,. 40. [BACK]

32. San Antonio, Chrónicas 1:87; Juan de la Concepción, O.R.S.A., Historia general de Philipinas , 14 vols. (Manila and Sampaloc: Agustin de la Rosa y Balagtas and Hermano Balthasar Marino, 1789-92), 10:14-17, 13:149; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., Historia de la Isla de Negros, Filipinas , 1565-1898 (Madrid: Raycar, 1976), pp. 117-18, 127-28; Pedro Murillo Velarde, S.J., Geographia historica de las Islas Philipinas, del

Africa, y de sus islas adyacentes (Madrid: Gabriel Ramirez, 1752), p. 66; Manuel Buzeta, O.S.A., and Felipe Bravo, O.S.A., Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de las Islas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: José C. de la Peña, 1851), 2:558-59; Joaquin Martinez de Zúñiga, O.S.A., Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos, 1893), 2:88; Félix Renouard de Sainte Croix, Voyage commercial et politique aux Indes, aux Iles Philippines, à la Chine . . . . (Paris: Archives de Droit Français, 1810), 2:281; Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, O.S.A., An Historical View of the Philippine Islands , trans. John Maver (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1966; original 1803), p. 83; Anon., "Moro Raids Repulsed by Visayans" (pamphlet published in Manila, 1755), B&R, 48: 48-49; Chretien Louis Joseph de Guignes, "Observations on the Philippine Islands and the Isle de France," in A General Collection of Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in All Parts of the World , ed. John Pinkerton, 17 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1812), 11:74. [BACK]

33. Felipe Redondo y Sendino, Breve reseña de lo que fue y de es la diócesis de Cebú en las Islas Filipinas (Manila: Colegio de Sto. Tomás, 1886), pp. 139-44; Fernando Fulgosio, Cronica de las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Rubio, Grilo y Vitturi, 1871), p. 84; Martinez Cuesta, Historia , pp. 12-15, 22-29, 53-64; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 13-14; letter of Governor Luis Villas, Himamailan, Negros, April 20, 1840, Oficios de la Alcaldia m ^or y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superinted ^a e Intend ^a de la Hacienda, 1834-1858, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA; Modesto P. Sa-onoy, A Brief History of the Church in Negros Occidental (Bacolod: By the author, 1976), pp. 13-33. [BACK]

34. RF 1:345-46; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:319-20; letters of Governor Luis Villas, Himamailan, Negros, February 24, 1834, September 20, 1837, Oficios de la Alcaldia m ^or y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superintend ^a e Intend ^a de la Hacienda, 1834-1858, PNA; Zúñiga, Estadismo 2:88; Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario 2:357-58. [BACK]

35. Concepción, Historia 14:326-28; Echaúz, Apuntes , p. 9; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., History of Negros , trans. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1980), pp. 124-25, 158; Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 56-57. Montilla family tradition has it that Agustin was not really captured by Moros, that, indeed, he removed himself for some time because he had another family elsewhere (letter from Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Grand Rapids, Michigan, January 7, 1987, to the author). Nevertheless, Montilla's absence clearly raised the level of fear among the Christian denizens of Negros. [BACK]

36. Mallat, Les Philippines 1:317-18; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 58, 110-12; HDP, Bacolod, Barrio Tangub, p. 34; Gemelli Careri, p. 55. [BACK]

37. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 12-13. [BACK]

38. Varona, Negros , pp. 80-81. [BACK]

39. Letters from Governor Luis Villas, September 20, 1836, and Governor José Saenz y Vizmanos, March 6, 1841, Himamaylan, Negros, Oficios de la Alcaldia m ^or y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superintend ^a e Intend ^a de la Hacienda, 1834-1838, PNA; Gobierno Intendencia de Visayas, Expediente de Don Agustín Montilla, Isla de Negros, 1844, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA. [BACK]

40. Romero, Negros Occidental , p. 22; Gobierno Intendencia de Visayas, Petition of the principales of Pulupandan, Isla de Negros, 1847, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA; Varona, Negros , pp. 49-54. [BACK]

41. Varona, Negros , pp. 60-64; A Britisher in the Philippines or the Letters of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Library, 1964), pp, 105-8. Montilla's 1844 petition to establish an agricultural settlement at Pulupandan indicated that, at that time, he had no intention of planting sugar. [BACK]

42. SN 6 (1925):469; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 22-23; Radicaciones de Estranjeros, Frances , 1838-1898, Petition of Yves Germain Gaston for permanent residence in Negros, October 17, 1844, PNA; A Gathering of the Descendants of Yves Leopold Germain Gaston, Hda. Sta. Rosalia, Manapla, Neg. Occ., Philippines (souvenir program; n.p.: n.p., 1981), pp. 9-11; Romero, Negros Occidental , pp. 22, 32, 35; Radicaciones de Es-paroles , Petition of Don Manuel Saavedra on behalf of his brother José Saavedra for permission to live in Negros, July 28, 1849, PNA; Demy P. Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet: The Story of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977), p. 85n; Varona, Negros , pp. 141-42. [BACK]

43. Yldefonso de Aragon, Estados , table 11; Guía de forasteros en las Islas Filipinas, para el año 1847 (Manila: Colegio de Santo Tomás, 1847), pp. 338-39. [BACK]

44. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 162-63. [BACK]