1. V. I. Lenin, The National Liberation Movement in the East (3d rev. ed.; Moscow: 1969). Stalin's writings on "the national and colonial question" actually predate those of Lenin: Demetrio Boersner, The Bolsheviks and the National and Colonial Question 1917-1928 (Westport, Conn.: 1981), 32-58; hereafter cited as National and Colonial Question .

2. "The Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-determination: Theses," April 1916, Lenin, CW , 22: 150-52.

3. This point is stressed by R. A. Ulyanovskii in the preface to Ulyanovskii, ed. The Comintern and the East: The Struggle for the Leninist Strategy and Tactics in National Liberation Movements (Moscow: 1979), 6-9.

4. A. B. Reznikov, The Comintern and the East: Strategy and Tactics in the National Liberation Movement (Moscow: 1984), 50-51.

5. Boersner, National and Colonial Question , 38-39, 45.

6. Bukharin's statement to the Eighth Party Congress, March 1919: Boersner, National and Colonial Question , 62.

7. Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World (Chicago: 1979), 51-57.

8. "Theses on the National and Colonial Question" (original draft version), Lenin, CW , 31: 144-51.

9. A complete record of the deliberations of the Second Comintern Congress, including relevant reports, theses, and the stenographic record of the proceedings, has been published in Second Congress . In the 1970s, Soviet scholars reexamined the debate on "the national and colonial question" at the Second Congress on the basis of archival research: see A. B. Reznikov, Comintern and the East , 51-87.

10. Charles B. McLane, Soviet Strategies in Southeast Asia: An Exploration of Eastern Policy under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, N.J.: 1966), 12-24, offers a penetrating analysis of the issues debated at the Second Congress.

11. Minutes of the meeting of the Commission on the National and Colonial Questions, 25 July 1920, Second Congress , 865-66; also Roy's revised supplementary theses and report, 26 July 1920, Second Congress , 218-24.

12. For Roy's original draft supplementary theses, see Gangadhar M. Adhikari, ed., Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India (New Delhi: 1971), 1: 173-88.

13. Sobhanlal Datta Gupta, Comintern, India, and the Colonial Question, 1920-37 (Calcutta: 1980), 14-51, examines the Lenin-Roy debate from a close reading of the major and minor texts.

14. Stenographic record of debate, 28 July 1920, Second Congress , 227.

15. On this and other views on revolution in Asia expressed by Lenin at the congress, see his "Report on the National and Colonial Questions," Second Congress , 211-22.

16. Reznikov, Comintern and the East , 74-75.

17. Datta Gupta, Comintern, India, and the Colonial Question , 21-70, emphasizes the persistence with which Roy held to and developed the views he first expressed in embryonic form at the Second Comintern Congress.

18. Quoted in Stephen White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Study in the Politics of Diplomacy, 1920-1924 (London: 1979), 120.

19. Lenin's revised theses, adopted 28 July 1920, Second Congress , 283-90; Lenin's report on National and Colonial Questions," 26 July 1920, Second Congress , 213.

20. Second Congress , 846-55.

21. Trotsky quoted in Boersner, National and Colonial Question , 66.

22. Light, Soviet Theory of International Relations , 81-90.

23. See, for example, Donald M. Lowe, The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao (Berkeley, Calif.: 1966), 54-81. The exception is Stanley W. Page, whose thesis is that sometime in the summer or fall of 1919 "Lenin arrived at a concept regarding the course of world revolution differing radically from that which he had previously held." He became an ''Easterner" who believed that the revolution in Europe could not succeed unless and until it was preceded by revolution in Asia: "Lenin, Prophet of World Revolution from the East," Russian Review 11 (1952): 67-75; Lenin and World Revolution (New York: 1959), 143, 152; The Geopolitics of Leninism (Boulder, Colo. and New York: 1982), 167-68, 187-88.

24. A. B. Reznikov, "Strategy and Tactics of the Communist International in the National and Colonial Question," in R. A. Ulyanovskii, ed., Comintern and the East , 154-55; and Reznikov, Comintern and the East , 87.

25. "Report on the Tactics of the RCP" to the Third Congress of the Communist International, 5 July 1921, Lenin, CW , 32: 478-79, 481-82.

26. "The Question of Nationalities or 'Autonomisation,'" 30-31 December 1922, Lenin, CW , 36: 605-611.

27. Quoted in Ronald G. Suny, "Don't Paint Nationalism Red. National Revolution and Socialist Internationalism: The Comintern and the Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East," paper delivered to the American Historical Association, December 1989, p. 29.

28. Appeal to the Muslims of Russia and the East, 3 December 1917: Basil Dmytryshyn and Frederick Cox, The Soviet Union and the Middle East: A Documentary Record of Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, 1917-1985 (Princeton, N.J.: 1987), 3-6; hereafter cited as Soviet Documents on the Middle East .

29. Suny, "Don't Paint Nationalism Red," 1-2.

30. Debo, Survival and Consolidation , 176-80; Lenin quoted, 177.

31. A. N. Kheifets, Sovetskaia Rossiia i sopredelnye strany Vostoka, 1918-1920 (Moscow: 1964), 135, 159-60.

32. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation (Bloomington, Ind. and Stanford, Calif.: 1988), 207-219.

33. Seymour Becker, Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865-1924 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1968), 273-95; Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, Islam and the Russian Empire: Reform and Revolution in Central Asia (London: 1988), 148-66. Dov. B. Yaroshevski, "The Central Government and Peripheral Opposition in Khiva, 1910-24," in The USSR and the Muslim World: Issues in Domestic and Foreign Policy , ed. Yaacov Roi (London: 1984), utilizes Russian/Soviet archival sources.

34. Sultan Galiev quoted in Bennigsen and Wimbush, Muslim National Communism , 54-55.

35. Appeal to the peoples of the Middle East, September 1920: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 7-15.

36. Stephen White, "Communism and the East: The Baku Congress, 1920, " Slavic Review 33 (1974): 491-514; hereafter "Baku Congress"; Suny, "Don't Paint Nationalism Red," 20-29.

37. White, "Baku Congress," 506-510.

38. Bennigsen and Wimbush, Muslim National Communism , 57.

39. Richard H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917-1921 (Princeton, N.J.: 1961-72), 3: 350-54.

40. For renunciation of the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907, 27 January 1918, see Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 244-46; for renunciation of all tsarist claims on Persia and the appeal for friendly relations, 26 June 1919, ibid., 246-49. Also Harish Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia, 1917-1927: A Study of Soviet Policy towards Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan (Geneva: 1966), 160-67.

41. Trotsky to Lenin and Chicherin, 20 April 1920: Lev Trotskii, The Trotsky Papers, 1917-1922 , ed. Jan M. Meijer (The Hague: 1964-71), vol. 2, no. 522, p. 147; hereafter Trotsky Papers .

42. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations , 3: 262-67; Debo, Survival and Consolidation , 184-87.

43. M. I. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi Iran i Afganistan 1917-1933 (London: 1985). The author is a Soviet émigré historian.

44. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 65-66; Bennigsen and Wimbush, Muslim National Communism , 79-80, 218-19; Sepeher Zabih, The Communist Movement in Iran (Berkeley, Calif.: 1966), 13-45.

45. Kuchik Khan quoted in Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 175. During the World War, Kuchik Khan had been armed and funded by the Germans and the Turks; he had purchased weapons from the troops of the defeated and retreating tsarist army in 1917; he had made previous contact with the Adalet and Hummet , the Bolshevik-leaning Azeri, and Persian communist organizations in Baku.

46. Trotsky quoted in Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 176.

47. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 69.

48. Trotsky to Chicherin, 4 June 1920: Trotsky Papers , vol. 2, nos. 556, 209.

49. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 68-69.

50. The Tehran government protested angrily. The NKID's reply was astutely employed by Chicherin to expose the complicity of Stalin and his group: Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 69-72.

51. Bennigsen and Wimbush, Muslim National Communism , 80.

52. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 68-69.

53. Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 177-81.

54. Stephen White, "Soviet Russia and the Asian Revolution, 1917-1924," Review of International Studies 10 (1984): 223-25.

55. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 75-81, 92-93; Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 182-88. For the treaty negotiations, see Debo, Survival and Consolidation , 368-71.

56. Treaty between Russian Socialist Republic and Persia, 26 February 1921: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 262-63.

57. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 72.

58. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 95; Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 178-81; Bennigsen and Wimbush, Muslim National Communism , 80; Martin Sicker, The Bear and the Lion: Soviet Imperialism and Iran (New York: 1988), 45.

59. White, "Baku Congress," 512-13.

60. On Soviet-Afghan relations, see Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , and "First Steps in Soviet Diplomacy towards Afghanistan, 1917-21," in The USSR and the Muslim World , ed. Yaacov Roi, 215-25; Ludwig W. Adamec, Afghanistan, 1900-1923: A Diplomatic History (Berkeley, Calif.: 1967) and Afghanistan's Foreign Affairs to the Mid-Twentieth Century: Relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain (Tucson, Ariz.: 1974); and Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia . The Soviet work is L. B. Teplinskii, Sovetsko-Afganskie otnosheniia, 1919-1987 (Moscow: 1988).

61. Curzon quoted in White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution , 91.

62. Adamec, Afghanistan, 1900-1923 , 115.

63. Mark Jacobsen, "The Modernization of the Indian Army, 1925-1939," doctoral dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1979, 119-33.

64. Volodarskii, "First Steps," 217.

65. Red forces isolated in Tashkent actually transmitted the texts by radio before the letters reached their destinations: Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 161-62.

66. Note on the establishment of diplomatic relations, 27 May 1919: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 87-88.

67. First Soviet technological assistance to Afghanistan, 29 May 1920: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 89.

68. Volodarskii, "First Steps," 218.

69. After having been one of the blank spots in Soviet history for decades, the life and career of Raskolnikov became the object of considerable attention during glasnost . See, for instance, V. K. Arkhipenko, "Fedor Raskolnikov" in Otkryvaia novye stranitsy: Mezhdunarodnye voprosy: sobytiia i liudi , ed. A. A. Iskenderov (Moscow: 1989), 309; also Branko Lazitch, Biographical Dictionary of the Comintern (Stanford, Calif.: 1973), 331-32, 337.

70. Lenin quoted in Volodarskii, "First Steps," 218.

71. Treaty between Russian Socialist Federative Republic and Afghanistan, 28 February 1921: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 90-94.

72. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 168.

73. Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 228-29.

74. Milan Hauner, What Is Asia to Us? Russia's Asian Heartland Yesterday and Today (Boston: 1990), 90.

75. Glenda Fraser, "Basmachi I," Central Asian Survey 6, 1 (1987): 1-73, and "Basmachi II," Central Asian Survey 6, 2 (1987): 7-42, utilizes British Foreign Office records of reports by special agents and informants on the scene to reconstruct the events of the basmachi rebellion in considerable detail. See also Alexandre A. Bennigsen et al., The Soviet Union and Muslim Guerrilla Wars, 1920-1981: Lessons for Afghanistan (Santa Monica, Calif.: 1981).

76. Enver quoted in Fraser, "Basmachi I," 58-59, and "Basmachi II," 37-38.

77. Quoted in Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 178.

78. Ibid., 180.

79. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 180-81.

80. Vartan Gregorian, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization, 1880-1916 (Stanford, Calif.: 1969), 239-61.

81. Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia , 222, 238-39; Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 182.

82. Compare Gregorian, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan , 237-38.

83. Peter Hopkirk, Setting the East Ablaze: Lenin's Dream of an Empire in Asia (London: 1984).

84. For the Comintern, M. N. Roy, and India, see Gene D. Overstreet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India (Berkeley, Calif.: 1959), 21-81; Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Policy toward India: Ideology and Strategy (Cambridge, Mass.: 1974), 13-18; John Patrick Haithcox, Communism and Nationalism in India: M. N. Roy and Comintern Policy, 1920-1939 (Princeton, N.J.: 1971), 11-43; and M. N. Roy, M. N. Roy's Memoirs (Bombay and New York: 1964).

86. Gregorian, Emergence of Modern Afghanistan , 235-36.

87. Donaldson, Soviet Policy toward India , 6-7.

88. Instructions to the Soviet Representative in Afghanistan, 3 June 1921: Soviet Documents on the Middle East , 95-98.

89. Volodarskii, Sovety i ikh iuzhnye sosedi , 173-74.

90. Quoted in Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations , 3: 342.

91. For Afghan negotiations with Britain and Russia, see Adamec, Afghanistan, 1900-1923 , 136-66.

92. Quoted in Tilak Raj Sareen, Russian Revolution and India: A Study of Soviet Policy towards the Indian National Movement, 1922-29 (New Delhi: 1978), 34-43; also Overstreet and Windmiller, Communism in India , 67-68, and Haithcox, Communism and Nationalism in India , 34-36.

93. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution , 129.