1. Dennis Morrow Roth, "Philippine Forests and Forestry, 1565-1920," in Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth-Century World Economy , ed. Richard Tucker and J. F. Richards (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1983), p. 33.

2. SN 14 (1933): 341-43.

3. M , September 11, 1920, p. 1.

4. Memorandum from Secretary of Agriculture, Island of Negros, Juan Araneta, Ma-ao, to The Military Governor of Negros, November 30, 1900, U.S. War Department, Record Group 395, Department of Visayas, 3rd District, 2620, U.S. National Archives; John R. White, Bullets and Bolos (New York: Century, 1928), pp. 44-46.

5. PFP , May 20, 1911, p. 5. Liongson's attitude toward his agricultural enterprise contrasts sharply with that of eighteenth-century Virginia's tobacco planters, who took enormous pride in the quality of their own crops and measured each other's social status by that quality. This difference in attitude may in part reflect the difference in the stringent requirements for growing tobacco, as opposed to the more lax techniques possible for raising sugar; see T. H. Breen, Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), chap. 2.

6. White, Bullets , pp. 49-50.

7. PFP , February 26, 1910, p. 1.

8. José Maria Mourin, "Recuerdos de una expedicion á la Pampanga en Diciembre de 1876" (ms., Newberry Library), pp. 19-20, 50-52. See also Ferdinand Alençon, Luçon et Mindanao (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1870), pp. 58-79.

9. John Foreman, The Philippine Islands (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892), pp. 447-48.

10. Gilda Cordero-Fernando, ed., The Culinary Culture of the Philippines (Manila: Bancom, 1976), pp. 14-15.

11. White, Bullets , p. 30.

12. Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife (New York: D. Appleton, 1908), pp. 65-66. White ( Bullets , p. 118) observed this same change over generations, although he attributes it—wrongly, I think—to reversion to traditional ways in old age.

13. PFP , June 26, 1915, p. 10. See also LI , June 11, 1906-December 20, 1906.

14. Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 138-39.

15. PFP , June 24, 1916, p. 8; May 12, 1917, p. 21.

16. Miguel Pérez et al., "Crónica semihistoria de Filipinas yen especial de las Islas Visayas desde 1877 a 1887" (ms., Newberry Library), pp. 1-2.

17. PFP , July 12, 1913, p. 20. See also Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, pp. 1-2; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1909, BIA, pp. 1-4; letter from Charles Cox, Coast and Geodetic Survey, near Iloilo, April 21, 1907, to his father, Pittsfield, Ill. (sent to the BIA by the latter), File C1242, incl. 55; W&G, December 23, 1908, p. 447.

18. M , February 26, 1916, p. 2.

19. Ibid., June 16, 1920, p. 3.

18. M , February 26, 1916, p. 2.

19. Ibid., June 16, 1920, p. 3.

20. Letter from La Camara de Comercio Filipino, Manila, April 22, 1912, to Resident Commissioners Benito Legarda and Manuel Luis Quezon, Washington, D.C., QP; MDB , November 23, 1914; August 1, 1921, p. 4; PFP , June 7, 1913, p. 20; June 21, 1913, p. 23; August 3, 1918, p. 27; M , May 30, 1913, p. 2; PAR 2 (1909): 662.

21. PFP , December 4, 1915, p. 13. See also MT , April 23, 1919, p. 7; PFP , January 13, 1917, p. 1; May 9, 1925, p. 42.

22. Daniel F. Doeppers,. Manila, 1900-1941: Social Change in a Late Colonial Metropolis (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984), pp. 56-58.

23. MT , February 24, 1920, p. 9.

24. M , May 11, 1918, p. 2.

25. PFP , October 10, 1908, p. 15.

26. LI , July 26, 1906, p. 2.

27. U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900-1901 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), pt. 2, p. 80.

28. Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 39.

29. Ibid., p. 38; MT , May 22, 1900, p. 1; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 52; brief sketch of Aniceto Lacson in Philippine who's who, ca. 1905, in author's possession.

28. Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 39.

29. Ibid., p. 38; MT , May 22, 1900, p. 1; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 52; brief sketch of Aniceto Lacson in Philippine who's who, ca. 1905, in author's possession.

30. Alfred W. McCoy, "'Muy Noble y Muy Leal': Revolution and Counterrevolution in the Western Visayas, Philippines, 1896-1907" (unpublished paper); Ma. Fe Hernaez Romero, Negros Occidental Between Two Foreign Powers (1888-1909) (Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974); Milagros C. Guerrero, "Luzon at War: Contradictions in Philippine Society, 1898-1902" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1977); John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chap. 5.

31. "Expediente sobre propuesta para. que se conceda el dictado de 'Muy Leal' a la provincia de la Pampanga, 15 Octobre 1897," Legajo de Pampanga, PNA.

32. C. R. Fuentes, Apuntes documentados de la revolución en toda la Isla de Negros (Iloilo: El Centinela, 1919), p. 128. See also letter from General E. S. Otis, Military Governor, Manila, to Adjutant General, U.S. Army, July 23, 1899, BIA, File 979, incl. 13; instructions from Apolinario Mabini, Malolos, to Commissioner to Negros Zoilo Mauricio, March 23, 1899, in The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States , ed. John R. M. Taylor (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 5:624.

33. Letter from Aniceto Lacson, Bacolod, May 27, 1899, to President William McKinley, BIA, File 979, incl. 5, p. 2.

34. Richard John Gilbert, "The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), pp. 52-53.

35. Petition to Civil Governor Taft from sugar planters in Panay and Negros, Iloilo, September 11, 1901, BIA, File C1242; MT , September 24, 1901, p. 8; December 29, 1901, p. 1; Mrs. Campbell Dauncey, An Englishwoman in the Philippines (London: John Murray, 1906), p. 330; LI , September 11, 1906, pp. 1-2; October 4, 1906, p. 3; October 26, 1906, p. 3; PFP , October 24, 1908, p. 3.

36. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, n.p.

37. Petition of the "Comite de Intereses Filipinos," Pampanga Province, to President Taft, August 12, 1905; letter from Captain H. A. Hutchings, Senior Inspector of Constabulary, Pampanga, to Adjutant, First Constabulary District, Manila, August 19, 1905, BIA, File 13206, incl. 1.

38. PFP , April 3, 1909, p. 12; April 10, 1909, p. 12; April 17, 1909, p. 12.

39. Annual Report of the Governor of Pampanga, 1909, BIA, p. 4.

40. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1909, BIA, pp. 11-12.

41. Petition from the Agricultural Association of Pampanga, Bacolor, October 13,1915, to the Philippine Resident Commissioners, Washington, D.C., QP.

42. PFP , April 8, 1916, p. 5.

43. A classic example of misunderstanding the life of the poor was Jose Rizal's 1890 essay "On the Indolence of Filipinos" (reprinted in La Solidaridad , trans. Guadalupe Fores-Ganzon [Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973], 2:465-607). Instead of denying as untrue the notion that the Filipino farmer was indolent, he attributed such indolence to the debilitating effects of weather and colonialism.

In the context of Pampanga, a gross misstatement of the peasant outlook appears in perhaps the most famous Capampangan zarzuela Alang Dios! (There Is No God !) by Juan Crisostomo Soto. At the beginning of Act II, after a few lines about workers' idleness and the good pay they receive, a chorus of laborers sings:

We of the masses
Through sweat, tears, and sacrifices
Allow the rich the chance
To live in abundant peace.
Happy are those
Whom wealth has favored.
Happier still the poor
Whom wealth has yet to spoil.

(Juan S. Aguas, Juan Crisostomo Soto and
Pampangan Drama [Quezon City:
University of the Philippines
Press, 1963], pp. 97-98)

44. Because of the political tensions still rampant in Pampanga at this time, I chose not to record the names of the interviewees and not to ask questions that might have exposed them to risk. The interview data will ultimately be deposited in the archives of the University of the Philippines at Diliman.

45. Interview of landowner, age 71, in Angeles, July 18, 1964.

46. Interview of landowner, age 81, in Guagua, July 16, 1964.

47. Interview of landowner, age 69, in San Fernando, June 28, 1964.

48. Interview of tenant, age 84, in Porac, July 20, 1964.

49. Interview of tenant, age 89, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.

50. Interview of tenant, age 75, in Angeles, July 15, 1964.

51. Interview of tenant, age 73, in San Fernando, July 8, 1964.

52. Interview of tenant, age 78, in Mexico, August 6, 1964.

53. Interview of tenant, age 78, in Mexico, August 11, 1964. On a case of abuse involving the death of a tenant, see MT , March 15, 1902, p. 1.

54. Interview of tenant, age 76, in San Fernando, June 23, 1964.

55. Interview of tenant, age 100, in Angeles, July 13, 1964.

56. Interview of landowner, age 78, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.

57. Interview of landowner, age 72, in Angeles, July 17, 1964.

58. Interview of landowner, age 76, in Guagua, July 21, 1964.

59. Interview of tenant, age 95, in San Fernando, June 26, 1964.

60. Interview of tenant, age 74, in Magalang, July 27, 1964.

61. Interview of tenant, age 85, in San Fernando, July 2, 1964.

62. Interview of tenant, age 75, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.

63. Interview of landowner, age 82, in Angeles, July 17, 1964.

64. Interview of landowner, age 81, in Guagua, July 16, 1964.

65. Interview of landowner, age 74, in San Fernando, July 1, 1964.

66. Interview of tenant, age 74, in San Fernando, June 26, 1964.

67. Interview of tenant, age 70, in Porac, July 21, 1964.

68. At that time I also collected data from casamac in Pampanga; however, for this chapter, use of the 1964 interviews appeared preferable.

69. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Murcia, July 4, 1970.

70. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Hinigaran, June 11, 1970.

71. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Isabela, June 25, 1970.

72. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Himamaylan, June 12, 1970.

73. Interview of duma'an, age 115 (?), in Binalbagan, June 10, 1970.

74. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in Pulupandan, June 15, 1970.

75. Interview of duma'an, age 90, in Pulupandan, June 15, 1970.

76. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in La Carlota, June 8, 1970.

77. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in La Carlota, June 4, 1970.

78. Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979), chap. 6; David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,

1976), pp. 134-37; Ignacio Villamor, Criminality in the Philippine Islands, 1903-1908 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909), pp. 51-53; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Reports of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906-11); "Historia del pueblo de San Luis, de la provincia de la Pampanga, Islas Filipinas," LPC, p. 20; PFP , April 23, 1910, p. 21; July 30, 1910, pp. 4, 10, 23.

79. Letters from Governor Francisco Liongson, San Fernando, to the Executive Secretary, Manila, October 21, 22, 24, 1913; letter from Liongson to House Speaker Sergio Osmeña, Manila, October 25, 1913, QP; interview with Victor Larin, age 101, in Barrio Barit, Candaba, August 8, 1970; interview with Isidoro Bondoc, age 83, Barrio San Isidro, San Luis, August 8, 1970; interview with Zacarias Carlos, age 88, Barrio Barit, Candaba, August 8, 1970. Over the years a schism had developed in Santa Iglesia, the faction of Larin believing that Apong Ipe still spoke to the faithful, that of Bondoc asserting that he did not.

80. John Bancroft Devins, An Observer in the Philippines, or Life in Our New Possessions (Boston: American Tract Society, 1905), p. 83; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Fifth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1904 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 1:578; Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 307; Guerrero, "Luzon at War," pp. 179-80, 183-84; Jose P. Santos, Ang Tatlong Napabantog na "Tulisan" sa Pilipinas [Three Famous ''Bandits" in the Phil-ippines] (Gerona, Tarlac: n.p., 1936), p. 18.

81. Alfred W. McCoy, " Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology," in Moral Order and the Question of Change: Essays on Southeast Asian Thought , ed. David K. Wyatt and Alexander Wood-side, Monograph Series, no. 24 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1982), pp. 342-80; Evelyn Tan Cullamar, Babaylanism in Negros: 1896-1907 (Quezon City: New Day, 1986), chaps. 3-6; Romero, Negros Occidental , pp. 168-87. Various sources give as Isio's name, Dionisio Magbuela, Dionisio Papa y Barlueia, and Dionisio Siguela. He signed his documents simply Dionisio Papa.

82. General James Smith, Report, July 31, 1899, in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1899 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), p. 345.

83. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection 5:625.

84. On Isio's later activities in Negros, see LL , August 8, 1899-August 5, 1900; MT , April 22, 1899-November 2, 1902; LI , February 14, 1907-April 20, 1907; PFP , February 10, 1907-September 28, 1907; Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, p. 39; Annual Reports of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1902-8, BIA; White, Bullets , pp. 41-109; Cullamar, Babaylanism , pp. 59-66.

85. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection 2:415; Cullamar, Babaylanism , Appendix H.

86. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1902, BIA, sec. 9.

87. LL , January 4, 1900, p. 3. On other planter efforts to suppress the social revolution, see MT , July 25, 1899, p. 2; May 10, 1900, p. 1; LL , January 16, 1900, p. 3; February 1, 1900., p. 3.

88. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1906 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906), pp. 4-5.

89. Ibid., 1909-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1910), pp. 5-6. See also Sturtevant, Uprisings , p. 137.

88. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1906 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906), pp. 4-5.

89. Ibid., 1909-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1910), pp. 5-6. See also Sturtevant, Uprisings , p. 137.

90. Santos, " Tulisan, " pp. 17-18; Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 301.

91. McCoy, "'Muy Noble'," p. 25.

92. White, Bullets , pp. 64-66. Articles in La Libertad during 1900 indicate that haciendas remained the main targets of the babaylanes. See also Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, p. 39.

93. Interview of carter, age 69, in Angeles, July 14, 1964.

94. Interview of farmer overseer (katiwala), age 69, in Porac, July 17, 1964.

95. Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 295. In their interviews both Victor Latin and Isidoro Bondoc spoke about the market at San Luis.

96. On everyday forms of resistance by the poor see Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), chap. 5; James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).

97. George Beckford, Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World , rev. ed. (London: Zed Books, 1983), p. 206.