1. Robert Lerner, The Cedar of Lebanon Prophecy from the Middle Ages until the Enlightenment (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1983).

2. I refer to Norman Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), and Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

3. This discussion of prophecy follows that of Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London: Penguin Books, 1971), Thomas Kselman, Miracles and Prophecies in Nineteenth-Century France (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1983), and Adas, Prophets of Rebellion . break

4. See, for example, the prophecies that accompanied the birth of Philip IV's children in Cristóbal López de Cañete, Compendio de los pronosticos y baticinios antiguos y modernos  . . . (Madrid, 1630).

5. Pedro Navarro, Favores del rey del cielo (Madrid, 1622). See also Antonio Daça, Historia vida y milagros, extasis y revelaciones de Sor Juana de la Cruz (Madrid, 1613).

6. William A. Christian, Jr., Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

7. Ottavia Niccoli, "Profezie in piazza. Note sul profetismo populare nell'Italia del primo cinquecento," Quaderni Storici 41 (1979): 500-539. See also her Profeti e popolo nell'Italia del Rinascimento (Bari: Laterza, 1987).

8. See Thomas, Religion, 154.

9. "Tratado del Cisma Moderno," in José M. de Garganta y Vicente Forcada, Biografía y escritos de San Vicente Ferrer (Madrid: Editorial Católica, 1956), 448.

10. Another was Fray Polanco, also a Franciscan; he preached against the Flemings in the court of Charles V and prognosticated disaster unless the new monarch reformed his government. See Joseph Pérez, "Moines frondeurs et sermons subversifs en Castille pendant le premier séjour de Charles-Quint en Espagne," Bulletin Hispanique, lxvii (1965): 5-24, and Ramón Alba, Acerca de algunas particularidades de las comunidades de Castilla (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1975).

11. See Gaspar Escolano, Decada primera de la historia de la insigne y coronada ciudad y reyno de Valencia. Segunda parte (Valencia, 1611), 1610-1621. The incident is also discussed in Ricardo García Carcel, Las germanías de Valencia (Barcelona, 1981), 132-138. According to Escolano, a second "rey encubierto" caused an "alboroto" in the city of Valencia in 1523 when his followers sacked parts of the city on Holy Thursday.

12. Gregorio de Andrés, "Las revelaciones de una visionaria de Albuquerque sobre Felipe II," Homenaje a Luis Morales Oliver (Madrid, 1986), 419-427.

13. AHN, Inq., leg. 496, no. 1. Isabel was investigated by the Holy Office in October 1590.

14. An excellent introduction to this astrological literature may be found in Robin B. Barnes, Prophecy and Gnosis: Apocalypticism in the Wake of the Lutheran Reformation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), esp. 120-121, 158-164.

15. For a brief discussion of Juan de Dios, see Juan Blázquez Miguel, Hechicería y superstición en Castilla la Nueva-La Mancha (Toledo: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Junta de Communidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 1986), 114-115.

16. AHN, Inq., leg. 2105. Casaos is also mentioned in Maria Zambrano, Edison Simons, and Juan Blázques Miguel, El proceso y sueños de Lucrecia de León (Madrid: Ternos, 1987), 46-47.

17. Gerson's position on dreams is examined by Paschal Boland, The Concept of Discretio Spirituum in Johannes Gerson's "De Probatione Spirituum" and "De Distinctione Verarum Visionum A Falsis" (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1959).

18. Ibid., 30. break

17. Gerson's position on dreams is examined by Paschal Boland, The Concept of Discretio Spirituum in Johannes Gerson's "De Probatione Spirituum" and "De Distinctione Verarum Visionum A Falsis" (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1959).

18. Ibid., 30. break

19. Karl-Joseph Hefele, Histoire des conciles, trans. H. Leclerq (Paris, 1917), viii, 526.

20. Clemente Sánchez de Vercial, Libro de los exemplos por A.B.C., ed. John Easton Keller (Madrid: CSIC, 1961), 235, 329. The Spanish texts read: "Del engaño de muger te deves bien guardar . . ." and "Tu deves de saber a todas visiones non es de creer."

21. See Chap. 20, pp. lxix-lxxii, De divinatoribus .

22. AHN, Inq., leg. 1226, fols. 787-812v.

23. Other than the alumbrados, the heretical sect that first surfaced in Guadalajara, Toledo, and other towns of New Castile during the 1520s, cases involving ilusos, videntes, and other types of prophets were relatively few. See Juan Blázquez Miguel, La inquisición en Castilla-La Mancha (Madrid: Librería Anticuaria Jeroz, 1986), 132.

24. See Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1965), 235. Recently, however, Kamen has suggested that the Holy Office did occasionally serve as an instrument of royal power; see his Inquisition and Society in Spain (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 242. Bartolomé Bennassr, L'inquisition espagnole (Paris: Hachette, 1979), 373-388 offers a similar interpretation.

25. The best introduction to Piedrola remains Vicente Beltrán de Heredia, "Un grupo de visionarios y pseudoprofetas durante los últimos años de Felipe II," Revista Española de Teología, vii (1947): 373-397. Heredia, however, does not utilize the "traza de la vida" Piedrola prepared for the Inquisition; BN: Ms. 10,470. Further information about Piedrola may be obtained in AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 6.

26. ASV NS: filza 34, fols. 352-354, dispatch of 20 May 1588.

27. BN: Ms. 10,470, fols. 96v-97.

28. AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 6, n. 8, letter of Mendoza to Gerónimo de Mendoza Manrique, 19 Sept. 1587, in which he refers to Piedrola as a "true prophet."

29. Orozco, Obras, 3:47-48. On Piedrola's ties with Herrera and Quiroga, see AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 5, Agustín Parra to Juan de Herrera, 22 June 1588. Referring to Herrera's inquiry about Piedrola, Parra reports that Piedrola, at least prior to his arrest in Sept. 1587, was Quiroga's familiar, a term which connotes that he had received financial and possibly political support from the cardinal.

30. Jerónimo de Sepúlveda, "Historia de varios sucesos del reino de Felipe II," Ciudad de Dios, 115 (1918): 304. See also IVDJ: Envío 189, fol. 176, which contains a series of letters pertaining to his case. AGS Estado 165, fol. 340 contains a copy of the Inquisition's sentencia of 10 Dec. 1588 against Piedrola. Further reference to Piedrola occurs in BL Eg. 1506, fols. 59-60, 93-95v; Eg. 2058, fols. 205-206v.

31. Also in this group were Dr. Mantilla, a court physician, and the alchemist Agustín Parra, a friend of both Juan de Herrera and Alonso de Mendoza. break

32. ASV NS, filza 33, fol. 33, letter of Juan Baptista de Pesaro, 5 June 1587.

33. Actas de las Cortes de Castilla y León, 9:119.

34. For Orozco's comments see his Obras, 3:48; it is reported that Piedrola and Orozco had an "odio mortal" for one another. Little is know about Juan Baptista except that he had studied theology in Spain at the University of Alcalá de Henares. His campaign against Piedrola apparently began in Barcelona during the spring of 1587; AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 6, n. 8.

35. AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 6, Papel contra García de Loaysa por Alonso de Mendoza, 7 Aug. 1587. According to Piedrola, Fray Juan's sermons began on 11 June 1587 and prompted what he described as an "alboroto" (uproar, riot) in Madrid.

36. IVDJ: Envío 89, n. 176, report of the vicar of Madrid, 9 Aug. 1587. Fray Luis's testimony reads: "que no se podria poner en duda sin que el tenia spiritu de profecia." For Fray Luis on prophecy, see Colin P. Thompson, The Strife of Tongues. Fray Luis de León and the Golden Age of Spain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 94-101.

37. ASF Mediceo, filza 5103, fol. 430.

38. AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 6, n. 8. Mendoza had written to Cardinal Colonna the previous August complaining about a letter in which García de Loaysa had attacked Piedrola.

39. Piedrola's sentencia is noted in Gerónimo Román de la Higuera, "Historia eclesiástica de Toledo," BN: Ms. 1293, vol. 7, fol. 239. Higuera refers to him as a "false prophet."

40. ASV NS 34, fol. 197.

41. AHN, Inq., leg. 3712, no. 2, fol. 5, n. 5, letter of Agustín Parra to Juan de Herrera, 22 June 1588. Parra also noted that the underlying reason for Piedrola's arrest was Quiroga's decision to distance himself from the soldier-prophet.

42. For Lucrecia, see Beltrán de Heredia, "Un grupo de visionarios"; Simons, Blázquez Miguel, Sueños y procesos ; Alain Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesiánica (Valladolid: Casa-Museo de Colón, 1983), 245, 316; and my monograph, Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).

43. ASF Mediceo, filza 4920, fol. 515v (copy 535v), Cammillo Guidi to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, 30 May 1590.

44. Nueva recopilación de todas las leyes  . . . (Alcalá de Henares, 1569), Libro 8, título 18, ley 1, and título 26, ley 11.

45. The full text of her sentencia is published in Jesús Imirizaldu, Monjas y beatas embaucadoras (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1977), 65-69. For Lucrecia's trial record; AHN, Inq., legs. 2105; 2085; 3712-3713.

46. Cited in Ramón Robres, "La Monja de Lisboa según nuevos documentos romanos con una carta de Fray Luis de Granada," Boletín de la Sociedad Castellonense de Cultura, 28 (1952): 523.

47. Fray Luís de Granada, Historia de Sor Maria de la Visitación y sermón de las caídas públicas, ed. Bernardo Velado García (Barcelona: Juan Flors, 1962). break

48. The Fugger News Letters. A Selection 1566-1605, ed. Victor von Klarwill, trans. Pauline de Chary (London: John Lane, 1924), 265.

49. Daniel A. Mortier, Histoire de maítres généraux de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs (Paris: A. Picard, 1911), v. 646. Sor María's political interests are confirmed by her contemporary, the astrologer Guillén de Casaos. Writing shortly after her arrest in October 1588, he noted that "it is certain that all [i.e., Sor María's miracles] was faked and designed to favor the party of don Antonio"; AHN, Inq., leg. 312, no. 2, fol. 5, Casaos to Alonso de Mendoza, Madrid, 19 Nov. 1588.

50. For Sor María, see Ramón Robres Lluch, "La monja de Lisboa. Sus fingidos estigmas. Fray Luis de Granada y el Patriarca Ribera," Boletín de la Sociedad Castellonense de Cultura 83 (1947): 182-214, 230-278. See also Álvaro Huerga, "La vida seudomística y el proceso inquisitorial de Sor María de la Visitación," and his "La Monja de Lisboa y Fray Luis de Granada," Hispania Sacra xii (1959): 35-96, 333-356. For a contemporary Protestant assessment of her "false miracles," see Cipriano de Valera, Two Treatises (London, 1599). Sor María's case is also discussed in José Sebastiao da Silva Dias, Correntes de sentimento religioso em Portugal (Coimbra, 1960) 1:317-318.

51. See Henry Kamen, "Toleration and Dissent in Sixteenth-Century Spain," Sixteenth-Century Journal xix (1988): 3-23. break