1. L. I. Brezhnev, Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XXVI Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency, 1981), pp. 110-11. See Henri Arvon, Marxist Esthetics, trans. Henry R. Lane (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1973), ch. 6; Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), ch. 4.

2. Sir Philip Sidney, Miscellaneous Prose, ed. Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 79, 88. The Defence of Poetry is quoted throughout from this edition.

3. Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 15; John N. King, English Reformation Literature: The Tudor Origins of the Protestant Tradition (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 233, 231-41.

4. C. Wright Mills, Power, Politics and People , ed. Irving Louis Horowitz (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1963), p. 406. See Malcolm Smuts, "The Political Failure of Stuart Cultural Patronage," in Guy Fitch Lytle and Stephen Orgel, eds., Patronage in the Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981), pp. 183-85; also Eleanor Rosenberg, Leicester: Patron of Letters (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1955), ch. 1; Kevin Sharpe and Steven N. Zwicker, eds., Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), Introduction.

5. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, p. 90.

6. See Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558-1641 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp. 257-68.

7. King, English Reformation Literature, p. 20 et passim.

8. On Sidney's upbringing and activist circle, see Roger Howell, Sir Philip Sidney: The Shepherd Knight (London: Hutchinson, 1968), chs. 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, et passim; James M. Osborn, Young Philip Sidney (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1972); Andrew D. Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney and the Poetics of Protestantism (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1978), pp. 3-8, 19-28.

9. On Leicester's contributions, see Rosenberg, Leicester: Patron of Letters; Golding's later translations were dedicated to Leicester, including De la vérité de la religion chrestienne . On Mary, countess of Pembroke, see John Buxton, Sir Philip Sidney and the English Renaissance (London: Macmillan, 1965), ch. 6, and Gary Waller, Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1979), chs. 2, 3; on Huntingdon, see Claire Cross, The Puritan Earl (London: Macmillan, 1966), pp. 260-63. See Rosemary O'Day, The English Clergy: The Emergence and Consolidation of a Profession, 1558-1642 (Leicester: Leicester Univ. Press, 1979), ch. 7; and Margaret Patterson Hannay, ed., Silent but for the Word: Tudor Women as Patrons, Translators and Writers of Religious Works (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1985).

10. Lawrence Humphrey, The Nobles (1563), sig. m.

11. On Goodman, see Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, p. 217; on Buste, see Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, pp. 313-17, and John Strype, The Life and Acts of John Whitgift (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1822), 1:198-99; on Stiles, see Paul S. Seaver, The Puritan Lecturerships (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 150, 211.

12. On the Netherlands, see Jan van Dorsten, Poets, Patrons and Professors (Leiden: Leiden Univ. Press, 1962), pt. 2.

13. Languet is quoted from Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, p. 204; the bishop from John Strype, Annals of the Reformation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1824), 2, pt. 1, pp. 403-4. See also The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 21-22.

14. Trans. Malcolm Wallace, The Life of Sir Philip Sidney (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1915), p. 198.

15. See Louis A. Montrose, "Celebration and Insinuation: Sir Philip Sidney and the Motives of Elizabethan Courtship," Renaissance Drama 8 (1977): 3-35; Marie Axton, "The Tudor Mask and Elizabethan Court Drama," in Marie Axton and Raymond Williams, eds., English Drama: Forms and Development (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 38-42; Philippa Berry, Of Chastity and Power: Elizabethan Literature and the Unmarried Queen (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), ch. 4.

16. Anthony Grafton and Lisa Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities (London: Duckworth, 1986), p. xiv; Jonathan Goldberg, Writing Matter: From the Hands of the English Renaissance (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), p. 45.

17. Grafton and Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities, p. 144, and pp. 142-48.

18. King, English Reformation Literature, pp. 9-16, 42-56, 209-31. Conversely, King points out, More's Utopia flourishes on classical Greek authors only (p. 43).

19. Joan Simon, Education and Society in Tudor England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1966), pp. 87, 89, 140.

20. An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility (1520), in Martin Luther, Three Treatises (Philadelphia: Lutheran Church in America, 1960), p. 93; Desiderius Erasmus, Opus epistolarum , ed. P. S. Allen and H. M. Allen (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906-58), 7:366. See also Stephen Orgel, ''The Royal Theatre and the Role of the King," in Orgel and Lytle, eds., Patronage in the Renaissance, pp. 263-65.

21. Roger Ascham, The Schoolmaster, ed. Lawrence V. Ryan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1967), p. 70; see also Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Holbrook Jackson (London: Dent, 1932), 3:387-88.

22. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, pp. 73, 75, 79, 86, 105-6, 109-10. On Sidney as champion of an Italianate style, see King, English Reformation Literature, pp. 11-12, 209-11.

23. Quoted by Simon, Education and Society, p. 324. By the late sixteenth century, the colloquies of Erasmus and Vives had been largely replaced in schools by the Genevan texts of Castellion and Corderius: John Morgan, Godly Learning: Puritan Attitudes towards Reason, Learning and Education, 1560-1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986), p. 182; and chs. 3, 4, 6. See also M. M. Knappen, Tudor Puritanism (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1939), ch. 26; Patrick Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England (London: Macmillan, 1988), ch. 4; and Ernest B. Gilman, Iconoclasm and Poetry in the English Reformation (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986).

24. Thomas Starkey, A Dialogue between Reginald Pole and Thomas Lupset, ed. Kathleen M. Burton (London: Chatto, 1948), pp. 153, 35.

25. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Life, ed. J. M. Shuttleworth (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), p. 24.

26. William Tyndale, Doctrinal Treatises, ed. Henry Walter (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1848), p. 107. So Calvin, Institutes 2.2.2.

27. John Donne, Sermons, ed. George R. Potter and Evelyn M. Simpson (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1953-62), 2:308.

28. D. P. Walker, The Ancient Theology (London: Duckworth, 1972), p. 142 and ch. 4. Walker's mistaken account has often been followed—by Frances Yates in Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1964), pp. 176-79; William R. Elton, "King Lear" and the Gods (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1968), pp. 38-42; and Roger Howell, Jr., "The Sidney Circle and the Protestant Cause in Elizabethan Foreign Policy," Renaissance and Modern Studies 19 (1975): 311-46. But see Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 82-83; and, for a fuller refutation than here, see Sinfield, "Sidney, du Plessis-Mornay and the Pagans," Philological Quarterly 58 (1979): 26-39.

29. Philippe du Plessis-Mornay, A Woorke concerning the Trewness of the Christian Religion, trans. Arthur Golding, 2d ed. (London, 1592), p. 359; see also pp. 337, 356, 368-69, 373, 551. So Calvin, Institutes 1.15.8, 2.2.4.

John Reynolds took a similar line in his 1572 Oxford lecture on rhetoric, discussed in C. M. Dent, Protestant Reformers in Elizabethan Oxford (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 103-4. But cf. Marsilio Ficino, The Philebus Commentary (1469), trans. Michael J. B. Allen (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1975), pp. 180, 246, 416.

30. Walker, Ancient Theology, p. 146; cf. Sinfield, "Sidney, du Plessis-Mornay," pp. 32-35; and R. B. Levinson, "The 'Godlesse Minde' in Sidney's Arcadia, " Modern Philology 29 (1931): 21-26. Pamela's argument against Cecropia is in Sir Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, ed. Maurice Evans (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), pp. 488-92; Cicero's Stoic arguments are in book 2 of De natura deorum . The issue comes up also in Sidney, Defence of Poetry, in Miscellaneous Prose, p. 108; and in Greville's account of Sidney's deathbed conversation ( Prose Works of Fulke Greville, pp. 81-82).

31. John Calvin, Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis, trans. John King (Edinburgh, 1847), 1:49.

32. Knappen, Tudor Puritanism, p. 474; Morgan, Godly Learning, pp. 199, 200, 241-43.

33. Stone, Crisis of the Aristocrat, pp. 740-41. See ch. 7; Morgan, Godly Learning, chs. 9-12; King, English Reformation Literature, passim; O'Day, English Clergy .

34. Quoted in Morgan, Godly Learning, p. 113; for further instances see pp. 157-59, 179, 187.

35. Thomas Becon, The Catechism, ed. John Ayre (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1844), p. 382.

36. Hugh Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen: Universities and Society in Pre-Industrial Britain, 1500-1700 (London: Faber, 1970), pp. 39-44.

37. Compare Jacopo Sannazaro's brief epic The Virgin Birth (1526), which invokes a classical pantheon to celebrate the birth of Jesus; and Pierre de Ronsard's Hercule Chrestien (1555) where the lives of Jesus and Hercules are paralleled (e.g., serpents were sent to kill the infant Hercules, and Herod tried to murder Jesus, and Hercules' self-immolation on Etna is like the crucifixion). Joseph Hall complains of such writing in Virgidemiarum (1598), 1.8.

38. Louis Thorn Golding, An Elizabethan Puritan (New York: Smith, 1937), chs. 4, 12, 13.

39. Ovid's Metamorphoses, trans. Arthur Golding, ed. John Frederick Nims (New York: Macmillan, 1965), Epistle, lines 111-16.

40. Torquato Tasso, Discourses on the Heroic Poem, trans. Mariella Cavalchini and Irene Samuel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 43-44; Marsilio Ficino, Letters, trans. Language Department of the School of Economic Science (London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1975-88), 2:77-78. For an English version, see the Epistle to Henry, Prince of Wales, with which George Chapman prefaced his translation of Homer.

41. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 278.

42. William Perkins, The Cases of Conscience (1600), in Thomas F. Merrill, ed., William Perkins (Nieukoop: B. de Graaf, 1966), p. 165. Mornay explained

the existence of suffering and error as God's way of discouraging godlike pretensions; otherwise "we would think at the length, that it was of our own steadiness, and not of God's upholding of us, not only that we tripped not, but also that we tumbled not down. For what made us fall but pride: and what manner of pride, but we thought we would be gods without God, yea even of ourselves" (Du Plessis-Mornay, Woorke concerning the Trewness of the Christian Religion, pp. 209-10).

43. Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia , ed. Evans, pp. 258, 275.

44. Paradise Lost 9.13-41, in John Milton, Poetical Works, ed. Douglas Bush (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966). On heroism in Spenser and Milton, see further Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 1560-1660 (London: Croom Helm, 1983), pp. 37-48; on their attitudes to images, see Gilman, Iconoclasm, chs. 3, 6. On standing, see Paradise Lost 3.98-99, 178-79; 4.63-7; 6.911; 8.640-41; and Eph. 6:13-14.

45. James VI, The Essayes of a Prentise, ed. Edward Arber (London: Arber, 1869), p. 29; see Anne Lake Prescott, "The Reception of du Bartas in England," Studies in the Renaissance 15 (1968): 144-73; Alan Sinfield, "Sidney and du Bartas," Comparative Literature 27 (1975): 8-20. On divine poetry, see also King, English Reformation Literature; Lily B. Campbell, Divine Poetry and Drama in Sixteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press; Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1959); Barbara Kiefer Lewalski, Protestant Poetics and the Seventeenth-Century Religious Lyric (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1979).

46. The English Poems of George Herbert, ed. C. A. Patrides (London: Dent, 1974), p. 205.

47. Edmund Spenser, Poetical Works, ed. J. C. Smith and E. de Selincourt (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1912), p. 593.

48. The Poems of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. William A. Ringler, Jr. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), p. 339; Ronald A. Rebholz, The Life of Fulke Greville (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 312 et passim.

49. Douglas Brooks-Davies, Spenser's "Faerie Queene": A Critical Commentary on Books I and II (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1977), p. 191.

50. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 170-72.

51. Tasso, Discourses on the Heroic Poem: Armida's island is described in books 15 and 16, and Ariosto is criticized on pp. 11-12.

52. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, p. 77. Aspects of my theme are treated by G. F. Waller, "'This Matching of Contraries': Bruno, Calvin and the Sidney Circle," Neophilologus 56 (1972): 331-43; and in Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 28-50.

53. John Calvin, Calvin's Institutes [trans. Henry Beveridge] (MacDill, Fla.: MacDonald Publishing, n.d.), 2.2.22.

54. Printed by Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, p. 538. The moral philosophy Sidney recommends in the letter is Aristotle, Cicero, and Plutarch. The distinction had been drawn similarly by William Baldwin in his Treatise of Morall Phylosophie (1547-48): see King, English Reformation Literature, p. 361.

55. The Whole Booke of Psalmes. . . by T Starnhold, J. Hopkins & Others (London, 1562); Collinson, Birthpangs of Protestant England, p. 96. The present chapter is contrary to Collinson's argument that in 1580 protestants

ceased to take existing cultural forms and employ them for religious purposes ( Birthpangs, pp. 98ff.). Rather, the relatively popular and amateur modes that Collinson mainly considers were overwhelmed by the developing sophistication of courtly and professional poetry and drama, such that the old questions took newly complex forms.

56. Francis Bacon, Philosophical Works, ed. John M. Robertson (London: Routledge, 1905), p. 335. See Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, pp. 130-37; Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (Harmondsworth: Peregrine, 1978), ch. 4.

57. Calvin, Institutes 1.5.1, 1.14.21; The Work of William Perkins, ed. Ian Breward (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), p. 447. On special providence, see chapter 9.

58. Sir Thomas Elyot, The Book named The Governor, ed. S. E. Lehmberg (London: Dent, 1962), pp. 29-33, 47-50; George Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie, ed. Gladys Doidge Willcock and Alice Walker (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1936), p. 227; the point about Sidney's wavering argument on love poetry is made by T. G. A. Nelson, "Sir John Harington as a Critic of Sir Philip Sidney," Studies in Philology 68 (1970): 41-56, pp. 45-49.

59. Stephen Gosson, The Schoole of Abuse (London: Shakespeare Society, 1841), p. 11.

60. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, pp. 90-91. Peter C. Herman points out that in letters to his brother Robert and to Edward Denny, Sidney does not encourage them to read poetry; in fact, he transfers to history and philosophy the qualities that in the Defence are supposed to assure poetry's superiority (Herman, "'Do as I say, not as I do': The Apology for Poetry and Sir Philip Sidney's Letters to Edward Denny and Robert Sidney," Sidney Newsletter, 10, no. 1 [1989]: 13-24). I think this shows Sidney's sense of strategy—he makes the best case he can in each circumstance.

61. Marsilio Ficino, Platonic Theology, trans. Josephine L. Burroughs, Journal of the History of Ideas 5 (1944): 227-39, p. 233.

62. Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, p. 35.

63. Ibid., p. 36; and see the commentary on the Defence by Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten in Sidney, Miscellaneous Prose, p. 190. But cf. Wailer, "'This Matching of Contraries.'"

64. In Merrill, ed., William Perkins, p. 164.

65. Milton, Paradise Lost 7.505-16; see also 4.288-89, 8.258-61; and Davis P. Harding, Milton and the Renaissance Ovid (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1946), pp. 77-78.

66. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, ed. Christopher Morris (London: Dent, 1965), 1.7.3, in 1:170. Hooker does allow that the will, being free, may shrink from or decline a good object when it has "some difficulty or unpleasant quality annexed to it," but this and other reservations (1:171-73) are evidently designed to explain exceptional cases, not to admit a general recalcitrance. On Hooker's status in the period, see pp. 149-50 above.

67. For Calvin the question is "whether the will is so utterly vitiated and corrupted in every part as to produce nothing but evil, or whether it retains

some portion uninjured, and productive of good desires"; he concludes that since only divine grace can produce any good motions in fallen men, the will must be "bound with the closest chains" to sin ( Institutes 2.2.26-27).

68. Erasmus, Handbook of the Militant Christian, trans. John P. Dolan (Notre Dame, Ind.: Fides, 1962), pp. 79, 82. Also, Erasmus totally fuses pagan reason and the regenerate spirit: "What the philosophers term 'reason' St Paul calls either 'the spirit' or 'the inner man'" (p. 85).

69. Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 193-95.

70. Terry Eagleton, The Rape of Clarissa (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982), p.4.

71. Stuart Hall, "Deviance, Politics, and the Media," in Paul Rock and Mary McIntosh, eds., Deviance and Social Control (London: Tavistock, 1974), p. 293.

72. Spenser, Poetical Works, p. 407.

73. Sir John Harington, in G. Gregory Smith, Elizabethan Critical Essays (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1904), 2:197-99, 202-3.

74. Nelson, "Sir John Harington as a Critic of Sir Philip Sidney," pp. 49-50, 52.

75. Greville, Prose Works, p. 134. See also pp. 8-12; "A Treatie of Humane Learning," stanzas 111-15, in Poems and Dramas of Fulke Greville, ed. Geoffrey Bullough (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1939); Rebholz, Life of Fulke Greville, p. 76; and Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, pp. 78-82.

76. Joseph Hall, Collected Poems, ed. A. Davenport (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1949), p. 97. Hall refers to Mary and Philip Sidney and Bartas in respect of his versification of the Psalms (p. 271). On the persistence of these topics in the seventeenth century, see Lewalski, Protestant Poetics .

77. Herbert, English Poems , ed. Patrides; Sidney, Poems, ed. Ringler.

78. John Milton, Complete Prose Works (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1953-82), 1:817-18, 820-21.

79. Sidney was knighted in 1582 because prince John Casimir of the Palatinate nominated him as his proxy (Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 92-93).

80. Greville, Prose Works, p. 3. On Sidney's idealized reputation after death as a Protestant activist, see Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 5-11, 263-67.

81. Poems of Ben Jonson, ed. George Burke Johnston (London: Routledge, 1954).

82. The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. Thomas Hutchinson (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1943), p. 441; W. B. Yeats, "In Memory of Major Robert Gregory," in Collected Poems (London: Macmillan, 1933), p. 150.

83. Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, On the Art of Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1946), pp. 34-35.

84. Buxton, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 54-55.

85. John Fekete, The Critical Twilight (London: Routledge, 1977), p. 195.

86. D. H. Craig, "The Hybrid Growth: Sidney's Theory of Poetry in An Apology for Poetry, " English Literary Renaissance 10 (1980): 183-201, pp. 183,

201; Martin N. Raitiere, "The Unity of Sidney's Apology for Poetry, " Studies in English Literature 1500-1900 21 (1981): 37-58, p. 49.