1. Ray Huang, 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline , pp. 20, 86. One of the implications of Huang's superb characterization of the Wan-li reign is that the importance of ideology in Ming administration almost guaranteed that the emperor would be little more than a figurehead.

2. See Silas Wu, Communication and Imperial Control in China: Evolution of the Palace Memorial System, 1693-1735 , pp. 107-23. According to Wu, K'ang-hsi valued harmony, a fact that led him to avoid drastic changes, treat officials with leniency, and rely on moral suasion rather than punitive sanctions in dealing with bureaucratic malfeasance. Yungcheng's stricter approach toward officials and his advocacy of radical reform are seen as the result of his adherence to efficiency as the principal value in his administration. One striking characteristic of the Yungcheng emperor was his dedication to his position as ruler and his attention to the details of government. His rescripts to palace memorials were often pages long, in contrast to the one or two words that often served as the imperial comment of his predecessor. On several occasions the Yungcheng emperor depicted himself hunched over these provincial reports, composing his replies by candlelight in a hand made shaky by weariness. Although we now know that he himself did not write all of his rescripts, it is clear that the image of the indefatigable monarch was not mere pretense.

3. Jonathan Spence describes several instances in which K'ang-hsi's aversion to conflict within the bureaucracy led to his refusal to take stern measures to combat corruption. Jonathan Spence, Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor, Bondservant and Master , pp. 186, 189, 212.

4. Harold Kahn provides an excellent analysis of the way in which Confucian ideals of kingship molded the Ch'ien-lung emperor's behavior. continue

Two poignant examples are his excessive displays of filial sentiment toward his mother and his almost compulsive attempts to appear as a patron of the arts and letters. See Harold Kahn, Monarchy in the Emperor's Eyes, Image and Reality in the Ch'ien-lung Reign .