Education Program Design

The orderly mesh of materials, content, and participants is an essential part of any successful program. A structured program design is not only common sense, it usually saves time and money and helps keep participants interested. The education program we suggest is discussed below, with examples provided by ongoing educational programs in Ventura County.

The Need for Dual Education

It is prudent to acknowledge from the beginning that an education program is not one-sided, with the resource manager in the role of teacher and flood control personnel in the role of stu-

dents. In truth, the resource manager may have a great deal to learn about the flood control organization and its activities. More importantly, the goal of the program—the preservation of riparian resources—will be primarily realized through dialogue in the field, as potential implementation tools are tested and evaluated. In this regard, everyone in the program is a student. In fact, the justification for the education program must be to provide a mutual frame of reference for field dialogue. We suggest that the following subjects should be covered in the education program to achieve that mutual frame of reference.

The Fluvial Process

"Fluvial" is defined in Webster's Dictionary (1971) as that which is "produced by stream action." The term may be unfamiliar to some involved in flood control activities. Other terms may come to mind for them such as "hydraulic" (that which is operated or moved by water) and "hydrologic" (dealing with the properties, distribution and circulation of water). However, these latter terms do not fully describe what is to be defined. The critical point is that streams and rivers are part of a process (defined in Webster's Dictionary as "a natural phenomenon marked by gradual changes that lead toward a particular result"). We suggest that "fluvial process" be defined as: A natural process which results from the dynamic interaction of the hydrologic cycle, the earth's geology, and the living environment.

Process implies movement. The energy sources of the fluvial process are often taken for granted and should be simply defined. These energy sources include gravity, solar energy, and geologic movement (uplifting) of the earth's crust. Other terms which should be defined relate to the with physical effects of these energy sources. These terms include precipitation, transportation, weathering, erosion, and deposition.

A deeper appreciation of fluvial processes comes with an understanding of geologic time and the history of local streams and rivers. Flood control personnel observe from experience that drainage basins differ. One is rugged and rocky, another is flat and sandy. One reason for this probably involves geologic formations. Soil maps of debris-producing soil formations which were once ancient oceans and are now high in elevation could be used to illustrate the forces and time frame involved in the formation of riparian systems. If possible, more recent deposits can be related to existing land features. Figure 1 was used in the "Technical Paper for the Ventura County 208 Water Quality Management Plan" (Lockard and Burgess 1981). The authors pointed out in this example how the Santa Clara River changed course in 1969 from point "b" back to point "a", resulting in considerable damage to the Ventura marina.

The physical elements of a stream or river, which are a result of the fluvial process, provide the medium for the biotic components of the system. The diversity of physical stream elements has permitted a high diversity of wildlife. Each element is part of an interdependent whole. This fact should be stressed as basic stream elements are identified and discussed. Physical stream elements which should be discussed in the education program include: 1) braiding and stream width; 2) pools and riffles; and 3) rapids and falls.

In discussing these elements, it may be convenient to use the description of a "textbook stream" presented in example 2.

Biological Resources and Ecology

A discussion of riparian biology and ecology can be incredibly fascinating or incredibly boring, depending on the presentation and the audience. Realistically, the resource manager should not expect rabid enthusiasm from flood control personnel when the subject of riparian biology is breached. A realistic goal is to keep the topic interesting. The resource manager is faced with the dilemma of deciding what kind and how much of this complex subject to present. It is suggested that this aspect of the education program be broken down into three categories.

1. What are biological resources?

2. How do biological resources interact with the environment (ecology)?

3. What affect do flood control activities have on biological resources?

Biological Resources .—In discussing biological resources of riparian systems, it is convenient to divide them into two areas, aquatic and riparian life. Aquatic is defined as that component of the biota which lives in or on the water. It should be pointed out that aquatic organisms have not only adapted to the medium of water, but also to its movement (see example 3). If local streams provide a significant sports fishery, it is often worth stressing this, since it is a utilitarian value to which people relate strongly (see example 4). Additionally, in discussing aquatic life, it is desirable to accentuate the diversity that exists there. Plants, microorganisms, algae, aquatic insects, reptiles, amphibians, and small aquatic mammals, such as muskrats, should all be discussed briefly.

The importance of the riparian environment as an interface between aquatic and terrestrial environments should be covered. A definition of the plant associations in riparian areas is desirable (fig. 2). A discussion of the diversity of plants and wildlife of riparian systems is most important. The terrestrial wildlife species which use riparian systems for food and cover should also be discussed (example 5).

Figure 1.
1855 U.S. Coastal Survey map. Significant points: a) Santa Clara River mouth and
approximate location of present Ventura Marina; b) approximate location of existing
Santa Clara River mouth; c) estuary and present location of McGrath Lake.

Example 2.—The textbook stream.

The "textbook" stream begins in the highest points of the drainage basin as surface runoff or groundwater forming small, fast-moving brooks. Precipitation is greater here than low lying areas, and weathering tends to be greater. These first brooks are characterized by relatively cold, clear, fast-moving water. The overall stream gradient is very steep. The stream tends to be quite erosive, but little deposition occurs. The streambottom is irregular and primarily composed of large rounded rocks which have been shaped by the turbulent, forceful movement of water. The turbulence tends to increase the level of dissolved oxygen in the water.

Example 2.—Continued.

As the brook moves downstream, it joins with other tributaries. The overall stream gradient becomes less steep, but the water continues to be fast-moving and turbulent. Both erosion and deposition are evident. The streambottom begins to be composed of small rocks, pebbles, and sand. The water is not quite as clear and contains some silt and clay particles in suspension.

As the stream moves out of the mountainous and hilly areas into the coastal plain, the gradient decreases even more. The streambottom is smoother and composed of sand, silt, and clay deposits. The volume of water is quite high, but the water moves much slower and with little turbulence. Deposition is much greater, and stream meander and braiding is more pronounced. Precipitation is much lower than in the mountain areas. Bank erosion is reduced considerably.

The "textbook" stream ends as the stream drains into the ocean. The stream may either form an embayment here or flow directly into the ocean. Gradients are very shallow, and deposition is at its greatest. The water often has low levels of dissolved oxygen and high levels of organic matter. There is usually a daily mix of salt water and fresh water (Clapham 1973).

Example 3.—Invertebrate adaption to water movement in streams.

The most conspicuous invertebrates in such situations are frequently aquatic insects which occur as immature forms as well as adults. Insects have been very successful in adapting to aquatic freshwater habitats and may be quite numerous. For example, in a study of a California stream, a single riffle area was found to be inhabited by almost 40 different species of insects (Reid 1961). Insects which live in rapidly moving water tend to be strongly modified so that they are not washed away by the current. They may be firmly attached to rocks, such as black fly larvae (Simulium sp.), or greatly streamlined, such as the naiads of some types of dragonflies (Order Odonata), mayflies (Order Ephemeroptera), and stoneflies (Order Plecoptera). Other insects solve the problem of current by living under or behind objects where the force of water is reduced. The larvae of dobsonflies (Family Corydalidae), caddisflies (Order Trichoptera), as well as a number of mayflies (Order Ephemeroptera) are characteristically found in such protected locations.

Example 4.—Requirements of fisheries.

Many of the streams in Ventura County still support a viable sport fishery. Although game species such as bluegill (Lepomismacrochirus ), green sunfish (L . cyanellus ), and large mouth bass (Micropterussalmoides ) have been introduced and are found with some regularity in county streams, they are more characteristic of lakes. By far the most important game fish in the streams and rivers of Ventura County is the rainbow trout (Salmogairdneri ) and its oceangoing relative, the steelhead rainbow trout (S . g . gairdneri ). Both of these fish are native to the county; however, populations of rainbow trout are supplemented with hatchery fish by the California Department of Fish and Game.

Rainbow trout require cool, clear, well-aerated water and are thus found in the larger, less-disturbed watercourses. Depending on the water conditions, trout in Ventura County generally begin spawning in late February (Moore 1979). The female builds a nest in clean gravel where she lays from 200 to 21,000 eggs. These are fertilized by the male, lightly covered with gravel, and abandoned. The young fish begin emerging from the spawning beds in about three weeks and usually reach catchable size within two years (Palmer and Fowler 1975).

Example 4.—Continued.

The steelhead rainbow trout has essentially the same spawning requirements as the rainbow trout, but differs in that it is anadromous. Anadromous fish are those which spend a portion of their life cycle in marine water but must enter fresh water to spawn. Probably because conditions for growth are optimum in the sea, steelhead trout attain a much larger size than do their non-migratory relatives.

Figure 2.
A definition of plant associations in riparian areas.

Example 5.—Wildlife which use riparian areas.

In addition to providing food and habitat for endemic animals, riparian woodlands are also important to more wide-ranging species. In Ventura County, which experiences a long dry season, water can be a limiting factor to wildlife. The dense riparian plant growth provides cover for animals such as mule deer (Odocoileushemionuscalifornicus ), which may spend most of their time elsewhere, but come to streams to drink. Riparian woodlands also serve as important migration routes for many species of animals, providing corridors with readily available food, water, and cover (Odum 1978).

Riparian Ecology .—The education program should discuss riparian ecology as a subject separate from that of biological resources so that the interdependence of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial systems can be better understood. In addition to a general discussion of ecology, presenting the concept of energy exchange is useful. Figures 3 and 4 could be used to illustrate the concept of energy exchange.

Effects of Flood Control Activities .—We suggest that flood control organizations be given the stewardship responsibility for preserving and restoring riparian resources. A legitimate step in accomplishing that goal is to make those involved in flood control activities more fully aware of the effects of their actions. This is based on the premise that with understanding goes responsibility.

Figure 3.
General diagram of an energy system.

Figure 4.
A highly simplified, generalized food web. The numbers next to the arrows indicate
the trophic level of the consumer. For example, a wading bird eating a fish would
function as a third-order consumer, while the same bird eating an aquatic insect
would be a second-order consumer. It should be noted that organisms rarely
feed consistently at one trophic level. Indeed, omnivores such as the raccoon
may feed at all levels, utilizing a variety of plant and animal matter.

It is useful to first discuss the potential (hypothetical) effects of flood control activities. The most obvious effect of flood control activities is the confinement of the natural floodplain. Associated with this are a decrease in river meandering, reduced deposition of soils and nutrients, and the separation of riparian systems from each other and from the stream. Other potential effects are disruption of natural stream elements and disruption of stream biology and ecology. Example 6 presents a discussion of the effects of induced turbidity and sedimentation on fish populations.

Discussions of environmental effects based on past actions of the flood control organization may be an effective educational tool, but pose a threat to friendly open communication. This subject should be presented discreetly, and with a minimum of personal judgment. As the program progresses, flood control personnel should have a greater role in evaluating local projects and their effects. An example of a 1978 emergency project which weas evaluated during the preparation of the County's 208 Water Quality Management Plan is contained in example 7.

Example 6.—Effects of turbidity on fish population.

During storm periods, water velocities are usually sufficient to keep sediment in suspension (Shaw and Maga 1943). However, when instream flood control activities take place during periods when the water flow is insufficient to carry the sediment in suspension, the sediments settle out and, in addition to reducing invertebrate populations, cover fish eggs and spawning sites, as well as preventing the emergence of recently hatched young (Cordone and Kelley 1961). Moore found that instream flood control work in the Ventura River and San Antonio Creek, in the spring of 1978, produced heavy sedimentation during the months when juvenile fish were emerging and resulted in depressed numbers of salmonids in subsequent sampling periods (Moore 1980).

Example 7.—Evaluation of the effects of a flood control project.

The diversity and richness of life in riparian systems is well documented throughout the world. They do not, of course, exist in isolation, but are part of the larger natural ecosystem. The "edge" between riparian systems and terrestrial systems becomes extremely important. Therefore, the confinement of natural floodplains, partially through flood control activities, allows the development of urban and agricultural uses immediately adjacent to streams and rivers. This has, in Ventura County, resulted in the separation of riparian vegetation from natural riparian areas and from terrestrial systems. The consequences are:  a) loss or reduction of plant and wildlife species which have specifically adapted to the "edge" between riparian and terrestrial systems; b) blocking and loss of vegetative cover used by terrestrial wildlife in migrating to riparian areas for food and water; c) degradation of water quality where rising groundwater is trapped and isolated from the natural stream; and d) isolation of riparian areas from periodic flooding and the related supply of water and nutrients required for riparian plants. Without sufficient water and nutrients, riparian plant communities eventually are replaced by less biologically productive terrestrial vegetation (fig. 5).

Figure 5.
Separation of riparian areas: a) Highway 33; b) isolated area with ponding
water and cattails; c) levee built in 1978 in the Ventura River just downstream
of its confluence with San Antonio Creek. (Photograph taken in March, 1981).

Flood Control Activities and Equipment

The resource manager must become a student as well. He needs to understand certain basics of flood control activities before meaningful dialogue is possible. These basics include the fundamentals of flood control engineering, watershed management techniques, flood control structures, and maintenance equipment and operations. A grasp of flood control terminology will greatly assist the resource manager in achieving "healthy" communication. Finally, the resource manager will find it highly useful to understand the realities of the fiscal constraints under which the flood control organization operates.

The fundamentals of flood control engineering are primarily related to the principles of hydraulics, since the function of flood control operations is to contain floodwaters. Some important hydraulic principles that should be understood are presented below.

1. The quantity of water ("Q") passing any given point is a function of channel gradient and cross-sectional area and water velocity, and is usually expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs).

2. The ability of water to hold debris (rock, sand, silt, clay and organic materials) in suspension is primarily a function of channel gradient and water velocity. Therefore, water that is carrying near its capacity of suspended solids is less able to erode than water carrying less than its capacity.

3. Surface runoff and the consequent volume of floodflows is a function of the permeability of the land surface. Vegetated land dissipates the energy of rainfall and absorbs water in the soil and plants. Urban areas have a much greater proportion of impervious surfaces (paved surfaces and roofs) and generate a proportionally greater runoff. In fact, areas that are over 80% urban may generate twice the floodflow of a corresponding natural area (Waananen etal . 1977).

4. Water velocity is a function of gradient and the surface resistance of the channel bottom and banks. Rougher, rockier bottoms and sides tend to reduce velocities, while smoother surfaces (such as concrete) increase velocities.

Watershed management involves flood control activities which attempt to reduce runoff and erosion. These practices include revegetating bare soil and encouraging deep-rooted plants. It may also include fuel modification programs which help avoid excessive runoff, which commonly occurs after a large, uncontrollable fire. Most importantly, watershed management should provide for the acquisition of floodplains and their exclusion from agricultural and urban conversion.

Flood control structures range from relatively simple and unobtrusive facilities to those that completely control and subjugate natural processes. Some flood control dams are meant to permanently hold floodflows (reservoirs) or to hold flows temporarily (retention basins), so that peak discharges can be held and released over longer periods of time (fig. 6). Other dams (debris basins) are constructed primarily to reduce the velocity of flows and encourage the deposition of suspended solids behind the dam. This allows "cleaner" water to pass through the dam. While this decreases the deposition of material downstream, it leaves the cleaner water with greater potential energy for erosion. Often, in these cases, energy dissipation or drop structures are placed downstream.

Figure 6.
Flood retention dam, Sycamore Canyon
Dam, Simi Valley, California.

Flood control structures which mainly confine the channel (usually called channel improvements) include levees, pilot channels, new earthen channels, trapezoidal channels with rock sideslopes, open concrete channels and concrete conduits (fig. 7).

The resource manager should become familiar with the equipment used in flood control activities. Each type of equipment has a purpose and a unique impact on riparian systems (fig. 8). Flood control maintenance operations often use this equipment to remove earth so that adequate channel capacity is maintained. This is more necessary where the channel is confined by urban or agricultural uses. However, riparian vegetation may also seriously reduce channel capacity by consuming cross-sectional volume and decreasing flow velocities. For this reason, flood control maintenance activities often involve the removal of riparian vegetation.

Figure 7.
Reinforced concrete box conduit under construction,
Santa Susana West Drain, Simi Valley. California, 1974.

Figure 8.
Bulldozer and crane clearing debris after January,
1969 flood, Pole Creek, Fillmore, California.

Finally, the resource manager's education is not complete without some insight into the fiscal structure of the flood control organization. Any riparian resource management program will cost money to design and initiate. In the field, some of the best management practices may be more expensive to implement. Additionally, monitoring the program will require time and money. The resource manager should be prepared to answer inevitable questions about the costs of the program and how they relate to the total fiscal structure of the flood control organization. Unfortunately, he may find himself trying to balance the tangible fiscal costs of the program against the more intangible benefits of riparian resource preservation and restoration.